All About Costing

OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you will be able to:
state the meaning of cost;
explain the elements of cost;
state the meaning of overheads;
explain the classification of cost.

28.1 COST : MEANING AND ITS ELEMENTS

The term ‘cost’ means the amount of expenses [actual or notional] incurred
on or attributable to specified thing or activity.
As per Institute of cost and work accounts (ICWA) India, Cost is ‘measurement
in monetary terms of the amount of resources used for the purpose of
production of goods or rendering services.
To get the results we make efforts. Efforts constitute cost of getting the
results. It can be expressed in terms of money; it means the amount of
expenses incurred on or attributable to some specific thing or activity.

Elementary Cost Accounting:

Basic Cost Concepts

Term cost is used in this very form. In reference to production/manufacturing
of goods and services cost refers to sum total of the value of resources used
like raw material and labour and expenses incurred in producing or
manufacturing of given quantity.

Elements of cost:

Cost of production/manufacturing consists of various expenses incurred on
production/manufacturing of goods or services. These are the elements of
cost which can be divided into three groups : Material, Labour and
Expenses.
Elements of cost
Material Labour Expenses
Material
To produce or manufacture material is required. For example to manufacture
shirts cloth is required and to produce flour wheat is required.
All material which becomes an integral part of finished product and which
can be conveniently assigned to specific physical unit is termed as “Direct
Material”. It is also described as raw material, process material, prime
material, production material, stores material, etc. The substance from
which the product is made is known as material. It may be in a raw or
manufactured state. Material is classified into two categories:
Direct Material
Indirect Material
Direct material
Direct Material is that material which can be easily identified and related
with specific product, job, and process. Timber is a raw material for making
furniture, cloth for making garments, sugarcane for making sugar, and Gold/
silver for making jewellery, etc are some examples of direct material.
Indirect material
Indirect Material is that material which cannot be easily and conveniently
identified and related with a particular product, job, process, and activity.
Consumable stores, oil and waste, printing and stationery etc, are some
examples of indirect material. Indirect materials are used in the factory, the
office, or the selling and distribution department.

Labour is the main factor of production. For conversion of raw material into

finished goods, human resource is needed, and such human resource is
termed as labour. Labour cost is the main element of cost in a product or
service. Labour can be classified into two categories:
Direct Labour, and
Indirect labour
Direct labour
Labour which takes active and direct part in the production of a
commodity. Direct labour is that labour which can be easily identified
and related with specific product, job, process, and activity. Direct
labour cost is easily traceable to specific products. Direct labour costs
are specially and conveniently traceable to specific products. Direct
labour varies directly with the volume of output. Direct labour is also
known as process labour, productive labour, operating labour, direct
wages, manufacturing wages, etc. Cost of wages paid to carpenter for
making furniture, cost of a tailor in producing readymade garments, cost
of washer in dry cleaning unit are some examples of direct labour.
Indirect labour
Indirect labour is that labour which can not be easily identified and
related with specific product, job, process, and activity. It includes all
labour not directly engaged in converting raw material into finished
product. It may or may not vary directly with the volume of output.
Labour employed for the purpose of carrying out tasks incidental to
goods or services provided is indirect labour. Indirect labour is used in
the factory, the office, or the selling and distribution department. Wages
of store-keepers, time-keepers, salary of works manager, salary of
salesmen, etc, are all examples of indirect labour cost.
Expenses
All cost incurred in the production of finished goods other than material
cost and labour cost are termed as expenses. Expenses are classified into
two categories:
Direct expenses, and
Indirect expenses (An item of overheads)

These are expenses which are directly, easily, and wholly allocated to
specific cost center or cost units. All direct cost other than direct material
and direct labour are termed as direct expenses.
Direct expenses are also termed as chargeable expenses. Some examples
of the direct expenses are hire of special machinery, cost of special designs,
moulds or patterns, feed paid to architects, surveyors and other consultants,
inward carriage and freight charges on special material, Cost of patents and
royalties.
1. Cost center means a location, person, or item of equipment or group
of these for which costs may be ascertained and used for the purpose
of cost control.
2. Cost object is anything for which a separate measurement of cost is
desired. It may be a product, service, project, or a customer.
Indirect expenses
These expenses cannot be directly, easily, and wholly allocated to specific
cost center or cost units. All indirect costs other than indirect material and
indirect labour are termed as indirect expenses. Thus,
Indirect Expenses = Indirect cost – Indirect material – Indirect labour.
Indirect expenses are treated as part of overheads. Rent, rates and taxes of
building, repair, insurance and depreciation on fixed assets, etc, are some
examples of indirect expenses.

The term overhead has a wider meaning than the term indirect expenses.
Overheads include the cost of indirect material, indirect labour and indirect
expenses. This is the aggregate sum of indirect material, indirect labour and
indirect expenses.
Overhead = Indirect material + Indirect labour + Indirect expenses
Overheads are classified into following three categories:
Factory/works/ production overheads
Office and administrative overheads
Selling and distribution overheads
Factory/works overheads
All indirect costs incurred in the factory for production of goods is termed
as factory/works overheads. Such costs are concerned with the running of
the factory or plant. These include indirect material, indirect labour and
indirect expenses incurred in the factory. Some examples are as follows:
Indirect materials:
(i) Grease, oil, lubricants, cotton waste etc.
(ii) Small tools, brushes for sweeping, sundry supplies etc.
(iii) Cost of threads, gum, nails, etc.
(iv) Consumable stores
(v) Factory printing and stationery
Indirect wages
(i) Salary of factory manager, foremen, supervisors, clerks etc.
(ii) Salary of storekeeper
(iii) Salary and fee of factory directors and technical directors
(iv) Contribution to ESI, PF., Leave pay etc. of factory employee.
Indirect expenses
(i) Rent of factory buildings and land

Basic Cost Concepts

ACCOUNTANCY

(ii) Insurance of factory building, plant, and machinery
(iii) Municipal taxes of factory building
(iv) Depreciation of factory building, plant and machinery, and their repairs
and maintenance charges
(v) Power and fuel used in factory
(vi) Factory telephone expenses.
Office and administrative overheads
These expenses are related to the management and administration of the
business. They are incurred for the direction and control of an undertaking.
These represent the aggregate of the cost of indirect material, indirect
labour, and indirect expenses incurred by the office and administration
department of an organisation. Some examples are as follows:
Office printing and stationery, Cost of brushes, dusters etc. for cleaning
office building and equipments, Postage and stamps. Salary of office
manager, clerks, and other employees, Salary of administrative directors,
Salaries of legal adviser, Salaries of cost accountants and financial
accountants, Salary of computer operator. Rent, insurance, rates and taxes
of office building, Office lighting, heating and cleaning, Depreciation and
repair of office building, furniture, and Equipment etc., Legal charges, Bank
charges, Trade subscriptions, Telephone charges, Audit fee etc.
Selling and distribution overheads
Selling and distribution overheads are incurred for the marketing of a
commodity, for securing order for the articles, dispatching goods sold or
for making efforts to find and retain customers. These expenses represent
the aggregate of indirect material, indirect labour, and indirect expenses
incurred by the selling and distribution department of the organisation.
These overheads have two aspects (i) procuring orders (ii) executing the
order. Based upon this concept the selling and distributions are studied
separately.

I. Selling overheads

Indirect costs incurred in relation to the procurement of sale orders are
termed as selling overheads. Some of the examples of selling overheads are
as follows:

Indirect material

(i) Catalogues, price list (ii) Printing and stationery
(iii) Postage and stamps (iv) cost of sample
Indirect wages
(i) Salaries of sales managers, clerks and other employees
(ii) Salaries and commission of salesmen and technical representatives
(iii) Fees of sales directors
Indirect expenses
(i) Advertising
(ii) Bad debts
(iii) Rent and insurance of showroom
(iv) Legal charges incurred for recovery of debts
(v) Travelling and entertainment expenses
(vi) Expenses of sending samples
(vii) Market research expenses.
II. Distribution overheads
Indirect costs incurred in relation to the execution of the sales order is
termed as distribution overheads. Some of the examples of distribution
overheads are as follows:
Indirect material
(i) Cost of packing material
(ii) oil, grease, spare parts etc. for maintaining delivery vans
Indirect wages
(i) Salaries of godown employees
(ii) Wages of drivers of delivery vans
(iii) Wages of packers and dispatch staff.

ACCOUNTANCY
Indirect expenses
(i) Packing expenses
(ii) Godown rent, insurance, depreciation, and repair etc.
(iii) Freight carriage outwards and other transport charges.
(iv) Running expenses of delivery vans, repair, and depreciation.
(v) Insurance in transit etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF COST

Costs are classified into following categories:
1. Cost behavior basis
(a) Fixed Cost
(b) Variable cost
(c) Semi-variable cost
2. Cost inventory basis
(a) Product cost and
(b) Period cost

3. Cost Relation to Cost Centre basis
(a) Direct and
(b) Indirect costs
1. Cost behavior basis
(a) Fixed Cost

A cost that remains constant within a given period of time and range of activity
in spite of fluctuations in production. Per unit fixed cost varies with the change
in the volume of production. If the production increases, fixed cost per unit
decreases and as there is decrease in production, the fixed cost per unit increases.
Rent and insurance of building, depreciation on plant and machinery, salary of
employees etc., are some examples of fixed costs.
Fixed Cost, Total same but per unit goes on changing.

Basic Cost Concepts
ACCOUNTANCY

Thus, the fixed cost per unit decreases as the total number of output units increase.

(b) Variable cost

Variable costs are those cost which vary directly in proportion to change in
volume of production/output. The cost which increases or decreases in the same
proportion in which the units produced is termed as variable cost. Direct material,
direct labour, direct expenses, variable overheads are some examples of variable
cost.
Variable costs, per unit same but total goes on fluctuating depending
upon volume of production/level of activity.
Thus, the variable cost per unit same and doses not change if the total number
of output units increases.
(c) Semi-variable cost
A cost contains both fixed and variable component and which is thus partly
affected by fluctuations in the level of activity.

Semi variable is that cost of which some part remains fixed at the given level of production and other part varies with the change in the volume of production but not in the same proportion
of change in production. For example, expenses may not change if output is upto
50% capacity but may increase by 5% for every 20% increase in output over
50% but up to 70%. For example, Telephone expenses of which rent portion
is fixed and call charges are variable.

Segregation of semi-variable cost

Semi-variable costs are segregated into fixed and variable cost by using the
following formula :
Semi-variable cost = Fixed cost + variable cost
Variable cost per unit = change in cost/change in output
For example, if the cost of production of 2000 units is Rs.26,000 and 25000
units is Rs.30,000
Variable cost per unit = (30000 – 26000)/(2500 – 2000)
= 4000/500
= Rs.8 per unit.

Basic Cost Concepts
ACCOUNTANCY

Verification :
Variable cost of 2000 units = 2000 × 8 = Rs. 16,000
Fixed cost = Total cost- variable cost
= Rs.26,000-Rs. 16,000
= Rs.10,000
Alternatively :
Variable cost of 2500 units = 2500 × 8 = Rs.20,000
Fixed cost = Total cost – variable cost
= Rs.30,000 – Rs.20,000
= Rs.10,000

2. Costs by inventory :

Product cost and period cost Product costs are those cost which are charged and identified with the product and included in stock value. In other words, the costs that are the cost of
manufacturing a product are called product cost. Product cost includes direct
material, direct labour, direct expenses, and manufacturing overheads.
Period costs are those costs which are not charged to products but are written
off as expenses against revenue of the period during which these are incurred.
They are not transferred as a part of value of stock to the next accounting year.
They are charged against the revenue of the relevant period. Period costs include
all fixed costs and total administration, selling and distribution costs.

Direct and Indirect costs All costs are subdivided into direct and indirect costs. The concept of direct and indirect cost is of basic importance in costing. Costs which are easily and directly
allocated to products or units are termed as direct cost. Direct costs include all
traceable costs. In the process of manufacturing of a product, materials are
purchased, wages are paid to labour, and certain other expenses are also incurred
directly. All these expenses are called as direct costs.
The expenses incurred on those items which are not directly charged to a single
product because they are incurred for many products are termed as indirect
Costs. The example of indirect costs are Oil and scrap materials, [indirect
materials], salary of factory supervisors [indirect labour],rent rates and depreciation
[indirect expenses]. Indirect costs, often referred to as overheads have to be
apportioned to different products on suitable criterion/criteria.

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
The term ‘cost’ means the amount of expenses [actual or notional] incurred
on or attributable to specified thing or activity.
Elements of cost are divided into three groups: Material, Labour, and
Expenses.
The term overhead has a wider meaning than the term indirect expenses.
Overheads include the cost of indirect material, indirect labour and indirect
expenses. Overheads are classified into following three categories:
1. Factory/works/ production overheads
2. Office and administrative overheads
3. Selling and distribution overheads
Costs are classified into following categories:
1. Cost behavior basis
(a) Fixed Costs
(b) Variable costs
(c) Semi-variable costs
2. Cost inventory basis
(a) Product costs and period costs
3. Cost Relation to Cost Centre basis
(a) Direct and indirect costs

What is substance abuse?

Substance abuse is ‘the use of illicit drugs or the abuse of prescription
or over the counter drugs for purposes other than those
for which they are indicated or in a manner or in quantities
other than directed.
Alcohol, prescription and over-the-counter medicines, inhalants
and solvents, and even coffee and cigarettes can be used to
harmful excess. Theoretically, almost any substance can be
abused.